How a Christian might apply their beliefs Essay Example for Free

How a Christian might apply their beliefs Essay In this, my second piece of coursework I will be looking at how a Christian might apply the beliefs that I just outlined in A01 and will refer to specific situations of conflict to illustrate this. A Christian could apply the beliefs I recently mentioned in A01 through all different means. The most recent event of late to do with war conflict is the Iraq war. Saddam Hussian we were told and could see was not a particularly pleasant man. I heard in papers and through television what he was doing to people and how he treated them. As Christians then in one point of view from the Sermon on the Mount we should forgive this man for his wrong doings and let him repent his own sins. This belief of forgiveness decelerates that should he recognise his wrongs and change his behaviour he could then be forgiven of his previous sins. Unfortunately Saddam was tolerant of the pain and suffering caused under his regime and unwilling to recognise a need to change his behaviour. However once captured Saddam was not subjected to the torture that he imposed but treated in a Christian and humane manner. Though as the passage states we should still maintain our Christian values and be forgiving, `to turn the other cheek`. An issue closer to home regarding conflict and Christianity is the fighting in Northern Ireland regarding the Catholics and Protestants. The two communities are constantly at war with one another over their faiths and in doing so are abandoning the core values of their religions. These two sets of people are following the `eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth`, way of dealing with their problems and issues, which has proven itself through twenty years of conflict to be ineffective and destructive. As again the passage from the Sermon on the Mount comes into effect and the two sides should realise that when a person of one side is killed they should not seek revenge and to kill, but to `live and let live`. Then this may result in an end to the violence and tragedies that are so often occurring. In the other effect towards Saddam Hussian issues we as Christians could most notice the quote of `An eye for and eye and a tooth for tooth`, from the Old Testament and do to Saddam the horrific things that we hear of him doing. Not many Christians, today I believe see this way of dealing with things. More to the point would not be really able as out generation of law and order would just not allow it. When people saw Saddam Hussian damaging an empire and country most I would have believed that they were angry and human instinct gets the better of belief. It is a natural feeling to become angry and upset with something or somebody. And this combining with believing that it is right to acknowledge the passage from the Old Testament results in terrible effects to peoples lives. Also this relates to the Wars going on around Northern Ireland. The two religions are constantly battling each other. We have seen the results of this situation and there is no justice to the trauma and deaths that are carried out.

Selecting An Appropriate Method Of Intervention Social Work Essay

Selecting An Appropriate Method Of Intervention Social Work Essay Intervention is rarely defined. It originates from the Latin inter between and venire to come and means coming between Trevithick, 2005: 66. Interventions are at the heart of everyday social interactions and make inevitably make up a substantial majority of human behaviour and are made by those who desire and intend to influence some part of the world and the beings within it (Kennard et al. 1993:3). Social work interventions are purposeful actions we undertake as workers which are based on knowledge and understanding acquired, skills learnt and values adopted. Therefore, interventions are knowledge, skills, understanding and values in action. Intervention may focus on individuals, families, communities, or groups and be in different forms depending on their purpose and whether directive or non-directive. Generally, interventions that are directive aim to purposefully change the course of events and can be highly influenced by agency policy and practice or by the practitioners perspective on how to move events forward. This may involve offering advice, providing information and suggestions about what to do, or how to behave and can be important and a professional requirement where immediate danger or risk is involved. In non-directive interventions the worker does not attempt to decide for people, or to lead, guide or persuade them to accept his/her specific conclusions (Coulshed and Orme, 1998: 216). Work is done in a way to enable individuals to decide for themselves and involves helping people to problem solve or talk about their thoughts, feelings and the different courses of action they may take (Lishman, 1994). Counselling skills can be beneficial or important in this regard (Thompson 2000b). Work with service users can therefore involve both directive and non-directive elements and both types have advantages and disadvantages (Mayo, 1994). Behaviourist, cognitive and psychosocial approaches tend to be directive but this depends on perspective adopted and the practitioners character. In contrast, community work is generally non-directive and person-centred. Interventions have different time periods and levels of intensity which are dependent on several factors such as setting where the work is located, problem presented, individuals involved and agency policy and practice. Several practice approaches have a time limited factor such as task-centred work, crisis intervention and some behavioural approaches and are often preferred by agencies for this reason. In addition, practice approaches that are designed to be used for a considerable time such as psychosocial are often geared towards more planned short-term, time limited and focused work (Fanger 1995). Although negotiation should take place with service users to ensure their needs and expectations are taken into account, it is not common practice for practitioners to offer choice on whether they would prefer a directive or non-directive approach or the practice approach adopted (Lishman, 1994). However, this lack of choice is now being recognised and addressed with the involvement of service users and others in the decision-making process in relation to agency policy, practice and service delivery (Barton, 2002; Croft and Beresford, 2000). The purpose and use of different interventions is contentious. Payne (1996: 43) argues that the term intervention is oppressive as it indicates the moral and political authority of the social worker. This concern is also shared by others with Langan and Lee (1989:83) describing the potentially invasive nature of interventions and how they can be used to control others. Jones suggests that in relation to power differences and the attitude of social workers especially with regards to people living in poverty: the working class poor have been generally antagonistic toward social work intervention and have rejected social works downward gaze and highly interventionist and moralistic approach to their poverty and associated difficulties (Jones, 2002a: 12). It is recognised that intervention can be oppressive, delivered with no clear purpose or in-depth experience however, some seek and find interventions that are empathic, caring and non-judgemental due to practitioners demonstrating rele vant experience and show appropriate knowledge (Lishman, 1994:14). For many practitioners, these attributes are essential in any intervention and are demonstrated through commitment, concern and respect for others which are qualities that are valued by service users (Cheetham et al. 1992; Wilson, 2000). Dependent on the nature of help sought there are different opinions on whether interventions should be targeted on personal change or wider societal, environmental or political change. Some may want assistance in accessing a particular service or other forms of help and not embrace interventions that may take them in a particular direction i.e. social action (Payne et al. 2002). In contrast, problems may recur or become worse if no collective action is taken. Importance has reduced in relation to methods of intervention over recent years as social work agencies have given more focus to assessment and immediate or short-term solutions (Howe, 1996; Lymbery 2001). This is strengthened by the reactive nature of service provision which is more concerned with practical results than with theories and principles. This has a reduced effect on workers knowledge of a range of methods resulting in workers using a preferred method which is not evidenced in their practice (Thompson, 2000). Methods of intervention should be the basis of ongoing intervention with service users, but often lacks structured planning and is reactive to crisis. This reactive response with emphasis on assessment frameworks is concerning, as workers are still managing high caseloads and if not supervised and supported appropriately, workers are at risk of stress and eventual burn-out (Jones, 2001; Charles and Butler, 2004). Effective use of methods of intervention allows work to be planned, structured and prioritised depending on service users needs. Methods can be complicated as they are underpinned by a wide range of skills and influenced by the approach of the worker. Most methods tend to follow similar processes of application: assessment, planning of goals, implementation, termination, evaluation and review. Although the process of some methods is completed in three/four interactions others take longer. This difference shows how some methods place more or less importance on factors such as personality or society, which then informs the type of intervention required to resolve issues in the service users situation (Watson and West, 2006). More than one method can be used in conjunction with another, depending on how comprehensive work with service users needs to be (Milner and OByrne, 1998). However, each method has different assessment and an implementation process which looks for different types of information about the service users situation for example, task centred looks for causes and solutions in the present situation and psychosocial explores past experiences. Additionally, the method of assessment may require that at least two assessments be undertaken: the first to explore the necessity of involvement and secondly, to negotiate the method of intervention with the service user. An effective assessment framework that is flexible and has various options is beneficial but should not awkward or time consuming to either the worker or the service user. As Dalrymple and Burke (1995) suggest, a biography framework is an ideal way as it enables service users to locate present issues in the context of their life both past and present. Workers should aim to practice in a way which is empowering and the process of information gathering should attempt to fit into the exchange model of assessment, irrespective of the method of intervention and should be the basis of a working relationship which moves towards partnership (Watson and West, 2006). As part of the engagement and assessment process, the worker needs to negotiate with the service user to understand the issue(s) that need to be addressed and method(s) employed and take into account not only the nature of the problem but also the urgency and potential consequences of not intervening (Doel and Marsh, 1992). Importance should be placed on presenting and underlying issues early in the assessment process as it enables the worker to look at an assessment framework and approach that assists short or long-term methods of intervention. An inclusive and holistic assessment enables the service user to have a direct influence on the method of intervention selected and be at the heart of the process. The process of assessment must be shared with and understood by the service user for any method of intervention to be successful (Watson and West, 2006). The workers approach also has an influence on method selection as this will affect how they perceive and adapt to specific situations. The implementation of methods is affected by both the values of the method and value base of the individual worker. The worker will also influence how the method is applied in practice through implementation, evaluation, perceived expertise and attitude to empowerment and partnership. Methods such as task centred are seen to be empowering with ethnic minority and other oppressed groups as service users are seen to be able to define their own problems (Ahmad, 1990). However, when an approach is used which is worker or agency focused the service user may not be fully enabled to define the problem and results in informing but not engaging them in determining priorities. Empowerment and partnership involves sharing and involving service users in method selection, application of the method, allocation of tasks, responsibilities, evaluation and review and is crucial in enabling facing challenges in their situations and lives. However, service users can have difficulty with this level of information-sharing and may prefer that the worker take the lead role rather than negotiating something different and not wish to acquire new skills to have full advantage of the partnership offered. Selecting a method of intervention should not be a technical process of information gathering and a tick box process to achieve a desired outcome. Milner and OByrne (2002) suggest it requires combining various components such as analysis and understanding of the service user, worker and the mandate of the agency providing the service otherwise intervention could be is restrictive and limit available options. However, negotiation and the competing demands of all involved parties must be considered and the basis of anti-oppresive practice established. Methods of intervention can be a complex and demanding activity especially in terms of time and energy and therefore, short-term term methods are seen as less intensive and demanding of the worker as well as more successful in practice. However, Watson and West (2006: 62) see this as a misconception, as the popular more short-term methods often make extensive demands on the workers time and energy. Workers are often dealing with uncertainty as each service user have different capabilities, levels of confidence and support networks. Therefore, there is no one ideal method for any given situation but a range of methods that have both advantages and disadvantages and as Trethivick (2005: 1) suggests workers need to have a toolkit to begin to understand people and need to widen the range of options available in order for them to respond flexibly and appropriately to each new situation (Parker and Bradley, 2003). When using methods of intervention, workers have to be organised to ensure that the task is proactively carried out and often attempt to prioritise involvement with service users against both local and national contexts and provide an appropriate level of service within managerial constraints. This prioritisation means in practice that, given the extensive demands, work using methods can only be with four or five service users at any one time and with the additional pressure of monitoring and supervising service users and reports, risk response is often responsive and crisis driven (Watson and West, 2006). To work in an empowering and anti-oppressive perspective is to ensure that intervention focuses clearly on the needs of the service user, is appropriate to the situation than the needs of the service. An understanding of these competing demands and the workers ability to influence decision-making processes does impact on method selection however, this should not mean that the service is diluted and methods be partially implemented as this is not conducive to managerial or professional agendas on good practice. Thompson (2000:43) sees this as the set of common patterns, assumptions, values and norms that become established within an organisation over time and a concern of workers is competitive workplace cultures where ability is based on the number of cases managed rather than the quality that is provided to service users which may result in use of less time-consuming methods. For work to be effective, an ethical and a professional not just a bureaucratic response to pressures faced is required and is not about the service user fitting into the worker or agencys preferred way of working but looking at what is best for the service user and finding creative ways to make this happen. Workers need to be careful not to seen as the expert who will resolve the situation as even the most established and experienced practitioners have skills gaps and often develop skills when working with the service users. This process of learning in practice requires good support and supervision, enabling the worker to reflect on assumptions about service users and their capabilities especially in relation to gender, race, age or disability to prevent internalised bias to impact on what the service user requires to work on to change the situation (Watson and West, 2006). It is crucial to appreciate the situation from the service users perspective and see them as unique individuals as Taylor and Devine (1993: 4) state the clients perception of the situation has to be the basis of effective social work. This concern is also shared by Howe (1987:3) describing the clients perception is an integral part of the practice of social work. Service users often have their own assumptions about what social work is and what workers are able to provide which is generally based on past relationships and experiences for example, black service users experience may reflect a service which in the past was not appropriate to their needs (Milner and Byrne, 1998: 23) but to alleviate this practitioners need to work in an open, honest and empowering manner and recognise that although service users may be in negative situations they also have strengths and skills that need to be utilised in the social work relationship. Workers should ensure that written agreements are developed that acknowledge all participants roles and responsibilities and avoid assumptions or issues (Lishman, 1994), this avoids breakdown in trust and encourages honesty and open shared responsibility between service user and worker. This involves negotiation on what should be achieved, by whom, including agency input. Agreements can provide the potential for empowering practice that involves partnership. However, cognisance has to be taken to ensure that the agreement does not become a set of non-negotiated tasks that service users have no possibility of achieving, combined with no reciprocal commitment or obligations by the worker as this does not address the issue of empowerment or oppression and can reinforce the power difference (Rojek and Collins, 1988). The final stage of the process is termination which should be planned and allow both parties time and opportunity to prepare for the future however, it has to be carefully and sensitively constructed and is much easier to achieve if the work has been methodical with clear goals as it demonstrates what has been achieved. Evaluation is beneficial as it enables the service user and worker to be reminded of timescales and can acknowledge the service users increasing skills, empowerment, confidence and self-esteem which can be utilised after the intervention has ended. Endings can however, be difficult for both the worker and service user resulting from various factors such as complexity of service users situation, issues of dependency and lack of clarity about purpose and intervention. This lack of clarity can result in a situation of uncertainty for both worker and service user (Watson and West, 2006). Finally, termination as part of the change process creates opportunities but also fea r, anxiety and loss (Coulshed and Orme, 1998). It is important for workers to take a step back and reflect on their practice and review their experiences to ensure that they are providing the best possible service in the most ethical and effective manner. Reflective practice provides support and enables workers to not just meet the needs of the organisation but also develop their own knowledge and skills and increased understanding of their own approach and the situation experienced by service users. A good tool to facilitate this is the use of reflective diaries. Reflecting in action and on action both influences and enhances current and future practice. The use of effective supervision is another process where workload management, forum for learning and problem-solving should take place which should be supportive and enabling to the worker (Kadushin and Harkness, 2002). However, the workers role in supervision is often viewed as passive as the supervisor sets the agenda. This can lead to disempowerment of the worker in relation to the agency and is potentially oppressive and discriminatory and provides a poor role model for work with service users and therefore consideration must be given on how they can create a positive and empowering relationship (Thompson, 2002). In conclusion, good practice requires workers to have knowledge to understand the person in situation, (Hollis, 1972) understanding both sociological (society and community) and psychological (personality and life span) and the interrelation and impact on the service user (Howe, 1987). A critical skill for effective and ethical practice is empowerment which is based on knowledge and values and is the difference between informing and genuine partnership and the importance of active participation of service users throughout the process. Social work is a value based activity and workers through reflection and supervision can all learn from experiences, adapt and enhance these to develop practice and gain self-awareness to understand how they themselves and their approach impacts on service users.

Impact of Fair Value on Creative Accounting

Impact of Fair Value on Creative Accounting 1 Introduction As Blake and Lunt (2000, p.375) rightly surmise within their work on accounting standards, the term â€Å"creative accounting,† was originally coined by the media, and it was particularly prevalent around the time of the Enron financial disaster. It was partially because of the financial collapses of firms like Enron and the major debate that followed these events, that International Accounting Standards were introduced. Amongst the main objectives of these standards, which were intended to make financial statements easier to understand and provide for more transparency (Alfredson et at 2007, p.6), one of the aims was curtail future opportunities for creative accounting. The IASB, when designing these standards started from the premise that corporate business had an obligation to account to investors, creditors and other stakeholder on a regular basis, usually within the annual financial statements, about the â€Å"performance, situation and future prospects of that business† (Alfredson et al 2007, p.4), which the focus being on the accuracy of this information. It thus sought to legalise this obligation and, through the standards, ensure that this result was achieved. However, despite the introduction of the standards and regulations, as Mulford and Comiskev (2002), Blake and Lunt (2000) have observed, irregularities in financial statements are still occurring. Many academic and professional observers are of the opinion that the measurements introduced by the IASB is serving to â€Å"obscure concrete evidence† in financial statements (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.1). In particular these concerns are centred around the boards movement away from historical cost accounting to a system of â€Å"fair value† accounting (Alfredson et al 2007, p.48), the introduction 4 of which was against the wishes of many stakeholders (Williams 2006). Fair value is intended to improve the accounting measurements used in financial statements by ensuring that these reflect relevant and current valuations of the business (Blake and Gowthorpe 1998, p.1). However, the argument against fair value, quite apart from the fact that it takes up an inordinate amount of management time (Scott 2003, p.2), is that it provides opportunity for manipulation and misuse and thus increases the potential for creative accounting. This is particularly prevalent in the area of asset valuation. The intention of this study is to investigate the arguments and debate that continues to surround the concepts and practices of creative accounting and the impact, if any, that â€Å"fair value† has had upon this issue. In particular, the study will concentrate upon these elements in relation to their use in the valuation of property, plant and equipment and investment property, which can in many companies, form a major part of their current balance sheet valuation. The objective is to assess and evaluate whether the introduction of the fair value concept has led to the intended improvement of financial reporting in these specific areas of the financial statements, or if creative accounting methods and processes are still being used to circumvent these improvements. It has been decided to conduct this research by using a literature review format. 2 Definitions, meanings and theories of creative accounting 2.1 Definitions and meanings Before being able to assess the extent to which the concept of â€Å"fair value† has impacted upon the reporting accurate values of assets in financial statements and the reduction of the prevalence creative accounting following the introduction of new standards and measurements, if any, it is important to understand the meaning and theories of creative accounting. Furthermore, understanding the reasons why these actions are being taken by so many corporate organisations is of equal relevance. Within the wealth of literature surrounding accounting and accounting standards, there are a wealth of diverse definitions for the term creative accounting Hey Cunningham, D (2002). For example, from an academic viewpoint Blake and Lunt (2000, p.375) define it as â€Å"that which does not faithfully represent the underlying commercial activity and is therefore not neutral.† Amat et al (1999, p.3) use even stronger terms to define creative ac counting, which they indicate is â€Å"a process whereby accountants use their knowledge of accounting rules to manipulate the figures reported in the accounts of a business.† As is perhaps to be expected, other stakeholders have been more forthright in their definitions and opinions. A business journalist, Ian Griffiths (quoted in Amat et al 1999, p.3), reveals the media view when he stated, â€Å"Every set of published accounts is based on books which have been gently cooked or completely roasted† commenting further that â€Å"It is legitimate. It is creative accounting.† An Investment analyst, Terry Smith, interviewed by the same authors (Amat et al 6 1999), also showed the level of concern felt about creative accounting in this segment of stakeholders. He commented, â€Å"We felt that much of the apparent growth in profits which had occurred in the 1980s was the result of accounting sleight of hand rather that genuine economic growth.† 2.2 Acceptance and reasons Acceptance levels and appropriateness in regards to the performance of creative accounting also show similar differences of opinions depending upon which particular stakeholder views are garnered. Whilst many say that manipulation, which is at the foundation of creative accounting, is an inevitability that cannot be addressed, whilst others believe that is the weakness of rules and measurements that allow this practice to continue (Langendijk et al 2003, p.31 and p.350). It is apparent that the media and investors support the latter of these opinions. However, according to a survey conducted by Amat et al (1999, p.13) as part of their research into creative accounting, the auditor profession not only believed that it was inevitable, with 91% of UK respondents believing that it could not be solve, but also over a third were of the opinion that it was a â€Å"legitimate business tool.† As indicated earlier, it is also felt that the introduction of the â€Å"fair value† concept as a measurement that would reduce the incidence of creative accounting is criticised as not being capable of fulfilling this role. The consensus is that this concept is expensive to implement, difficult to determine and verify, due mainly to objectivity characteristics, and is therefore easy for the opportunistic organisation to manipulate (Benston 12008, p.103). 2.3 Manifestation and methods of creative accounting Historically, creative accounting methods are used in a number of ways, all of which are designed to influence the financial statements and results produced by commercial organisations. Irrespective of whether these are directed towards the profit and loss account or balance sheet, all of these methods will have the effect of altering, or manipulating, the value of the business. One popular method is that known as â€Å"income smoothing† (Alfredson et al 2007, p.682). The objective of this method is to avoid the appearance of volatile changes in profit growth levels. For example, if a business moves from  £1 million profit in one year to  £2 million in the next, but it is expected that the third year profits would fall by 25% in comparison to year two, income smoothing may be implemented in this year. The smoothing effect is designed to show a more controlled and sustained level of growth The smoothing process can be achieved in a number of ways. One of the most obvious routes of achieving this situation is by the manipulation of provisions or accruals (Antill and Lee 2005, p.129). In the case described above increasing accruals or reducing debtors would have the desired effect of moving profit from the second year into the third, thus smoothing out the volatile look of the profit curve that previously existed. As some of these provisions are based upon estimations, manipulation is difficult to verify (Alfredson et al 2007, p.682). For example, within the financial statements of financial institutions such as banks, there is a requirement to provide for existing and potential bad debts. As an significant element of the bad debt provision calculation is based upon judgement, which can be biased, it is possible for these figures to be manipulated to show a more favourable position than might in reality be the case. Another method of manipulating the financial results is related to earnings management. In this case the management of the business will have a particular target in mind (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.15). One target might be to move earnings from one year to another with the specific intent of manipulating the profitability of the business for that particular year. An example of this is given in the research of Amat et al (1999), where they took an existing investment that had a historical cost of  £1 million but a current value of  £3 million. As the business managers in this situation have the freedom to choose exactly which year they can sell the investment and realise the profit, they have the ability to manipulate the financial statement results by their decision. Alternatively, sometimes a special â€Å"one off† charge may be included within the accounts, which will depress the profits and earnings. For example, if the payment of a lawsuit has been agreed to be completed over a period of years, it is possible that the management will decide to include all of these payments within one year. The management is then able to explain away part of the poor performance as result from this exceptional event. The difficulty is that, upon further examination of some exceptional items in corporate financial statement, it is often difficult to justify them being excluded from normal business operations. Therefore, it could be argued that they are, in effect, simply attempts to â€Å"window dress† the figures in an effort to put a more positive view on the results (Stolowy and Beton 2004). One element of earnings management that has proven popular with corporate management is the â€Å"big bath† scenario, which is seen by academics as an opportunistic method of creative accounting (Reidl 2004, p.823). The theory behind the â€Å"big bath† is particularly useful when an organisations management can foresee that the results for a current year are going to be poor. To limit the impact that this might have upon the future, and effectively to show that this situation will soon be reversed, management will seek to increase these losses. In other words, they will â€Å"dump† as much expense as they can into the bad year (hence the term big bath) so that the next years profit show a more significant improvement in the companys fortunes. Often this method of creative accounting will be used where there has been a change of management during the year. By affecting the big bath method, the new CEO is able to pass the blame for poor results onto the previous m anagement team (Riahi-Belkaoui 2004 p.58). Of course, the manipulated improvement to the following years profits will have the benefit of improving the new teams reputation with investors and other stakeholders. Another example of creative accounting is apparent in the methods used by corporations to move items off balance sheet, particularly in the case of debt and financing (Pierce-Brown and Steele 1999, p.159). For example, where corporations sell property portfolios through a process of sale and leaseback, profits can be enhanced by manipulating the value of the portfolio. The downside of this process is that increases the rental amount but, the advantages are that this is spread over a number of years and, in addition, the increased values will have an immediate positive effect upon the current value of the business. In addition, companies are also afforded the ability through these processes to violate and circumvent debt covenants (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.91). As Pierce-Brown and Steele (1999, p.162) suggest, all it requires to achieve this situation is a change in the accounting policies put in place for the organisation. In a number of creative accounting methods described within this section, particularly those relating to fixed assets, the key element of the method is its reliance upon judgement. If corporations therefore wish to manipulate their results in any of these ways therefore, all they have to do is ensure that the judgement secured is biased in the direction they require (Alfredson et al 2007, p.259). With auditors, actuaries and other experts having differing standards by which they would estimate valuations, for example some would be more cautious than others, influencing financial results in a particular direction is not impossible to achieve. One of the concerns that have been expressed following the change to fair value is that, rather than reducing the opportunity for manipulation and creative accounting that previously existed, in certain areas this measurement has increased the potential. This is particularly seen to be the case in terms of business assets (Antill and Lee (2005) and Stolowy and Breton (2004)). For example, as with other areas of manipulation, the ability to be able to choose between some elements of asset valuations being based upon the historical cost basis, or using the fair value method of revaluation, this area can also be seen to have the potential of being influenced by biased judgements. 2.4 Purpose of creative accounting We have seen that the main result achieved from using the various methods of creative accounting is to change the revenue, earnings and value of the business, but the real question is for what purpose is being employed? In other words, which stakeholders does it benefit or disadvantage? The answer to these questions, as the literature being reviewed has indicated, the purpose of creative accounting has different objectives for each segment of stakeholders (Blake and Lunt 2000). Firstly, many academic have concentrated upon the effect and benefit that creative accounting might have for the one group of stakeholders who are closest to the corporate operations, which would be the management team. The salaries, bonuses and other rewards for most CEOs and senior management are linked to the performance of the business and, if these performance levels are not reached, the rewards will not be forthcoming. However, there is no negative impact on salaries related to the amount by which targets are missed, for example, whether the results are  £1 million of  £5 million below target salaries will remain the same. Therefore, if the CEO believes that in a particular year the business will not reach the required target, it is to his or her advantage to shift earnings from that year into the next in order to enhance and improve the potential size of future rewards (Investopedia 2008). Furthermore, as has already been indicated in the previous section, management earnings manipulation is also a useful tool in enhancing the reputation of the management team itself. In addition to the benefits available to a new CEO and team as outlined, it is also possible that the same process will be used by management teams exiting the business to improve their attraction to future employees (Riahi-Belkaoui 2004). In other words it is being used for self interest purposes by the management (Scott 2003, p.91). Wealth transfer is another popular reason for manipulation (Stolowy and Breton 2004). This is especially prevalent where there is a group situation with a number of subsidiary companies involved, where it is not difficult to manipulate the accounts by moving earnings or assets from one of the businesses to another. Such a scenario might be seen as favourable where part of the corporate assets, in terms of one of the group corporations, might be being groomed for possible tak eover or flotation. Furthermore, in the case of a multinational, this method of Creative accounting is useful in transferring wealth from a business located in one country to that operating in another national location. In this case it can be helpful in combating political pressure that might be being exerted to transfer wealth away from the corporation (Pierce-Brown and Steele 1999, p.161). Further evidence of manipulation for political purposes was examined in the work of Stolowy and Breton (2000, p.13). In this case they looked at this mode of creative accounting as related to corporations within the oil industry. What they found was that, during periods such as the Gulf War, which resulted in increased retail prices of fuel, these corporations adopted accounting policies that were designed to reduce their revenue. The purpose of this exercise was to limit the potential â€Å"political consequences† that might result from their organisations being seen to make higher profits during this period. Finally, and perhaps the most important reason for creative accounting methods, it is the impact that these changes have upon current and potential investors that is often the focus of these actions. Most academic and professional researchers and observers, including Tweedie and Whittington (1990), Antill and Lee (2006), Barker (2001) amongst others, see this purpose as being the prime objective of creative accounting. Manipulating revenues and balance sheet items, as well as earnings management are intended to present the corporation to the investor in a good and positive light, encouraging them to make and/or retain the investment (Stolowy and Breton 2000, p.10). These methods can also be used to have a positive impact upon investors decision making indicators, such as the P/E ratio (Barker 2001, p.2) and cash flow statements (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.354). One of the adverse problems of this manipulation process is that it also has an effect upon the â€Å"accounting for risk† (Babbel et al 2003, p.16) and this can affect a whole industry. A typical example of this happening in practice can be witnessed in the current credit crunch (2008). There are those who argue that the effects of this event were exaggerated because of the financial institutions propensity for manipulating bad debts. It can be argued therefore that, whatever the immediate benefits are of creative accounting, and irrespective of which stakeholders receive those benefits, at some future stage there is likely to be witnessed an adverse reaction that will eliminate the short-term benefits. Furthermore, as the current bank crisis has indicated, the potential losses from this future reaction can threaten the continued existence of the corporation. 3 Accounting measurements and controversial issues The international financial reporting standards, as indicated previously, were designed to reduce creative accounting. Two areas which were singled out for particular attention within this situation were the accounting standards to be used for the valuation of property, plant and equipment and investment property as these were seen as areas of the financial statements that have a significant influence upon the value of a corporation (IASB 2008). 3.1 Methods of measurements There have been a number of measurements used in the past to arrive at a realistic value for these assets. The most commonly used was the historical cost method. This method used the initial cost of the asset as a starting point and then, as it was used within the business, depreciated that asset over what was considered its useful life, often using what was known as the direct line method of depreciation or amortisation. Foe example, if a particular item of equipment cost  £10,000 and its life expectancy within the firm was set at 5 years, that asset would depreciate at  £2,000 per annum. However, as Mulford and Comiskev (2002, p.321) rightly observe, the drawback to this system is that it often does not â€Å"correlate with assets whose value did not diminish predictably over time.† In the case of the  £10,000 item used above, it might be that, at the end of its useful life to the company it was sold for  £2,500, which means that, if this is received at the end of th e useful life period, profits for the business for that year were enhanced by this amount. The argument against this system is that during the course of the previous four years the true value of the asset was not being reflected in the financial statements and this had an adverse effect on the value of the firm (Blake and Lunt 2000). Another method of measurement that was used within some financial accounting environments was replacement value (Lindsell 2005). This method takes the cost of replacement as its marker for valuation rather than the historical price paid. It also relies upon the current value of the used equipment to provide a calculation of the difference. Using the example of the  £10,000 asset as an example, if the replacement cost was  £11,000 and the amount receivable should the used asset be sold is  £9,000, there is a difference of  £2,000 to be accounted for. This differential would effectively replace the depreciation reserve used within the historical cost method and was deemed by some to be more appropriate in that it reflected known values (Bens and Heltzer 2004). The only risk element in using this method is taking into account the judgement on the sale of the used asset. A further method of measurement was introduced that relied upon exit value. The basic concept of this method was that it used the sales value of the corporations assets (Barker 2001, p.87). The calculation of this value might for example, be used in the case of the business being acquired by another or its value upon failure. The difficulty with both of these situations is that unless either situation was imminent, judgements and estimations had to be used to assess these values. One issue that arose with exit value, particularly in respect of the valuation of assets such as property, was the inclination to undervalue the asset for tax reasons (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.131). Others have referred to the asset sale element of this measurement as the net realisable value (NRV). This takes into account the market for the asset, the maximum return likely to be achieved, then deducts the cost of transportation and other ancillary disposal costs before arriving at the NRV value (Van Zij i and Whittington 2006, p.3). Prior to the settlement on fair value as being the most appropriate measurements, one measure that most academics thought would be favoured by the â€Å"Standard setters† was the deprival value approach (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006, p.3.). The intention of this process was to determine the cost of the asset based upon the removal effect that it would have upon the business, in other words what cost would the business incur if it was deprived of that asset. As indicated, many academics thought this method would produce the accurate results. However, the professionals were not of the same opinion (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006) and, through the process of consultation and lobbying it was their voice that one the day. One has to wonder whether to threat to manipulation and creative accounting had any influence upon the decisions made by professionals. Fair value was the concept introduced with the introduction of the IASB standards and measurements. The intention of fair value is to ensure that the financial statements produced by a corporation are a true representation of the physical values that could be achieved for the business assets and liabilities should these be liquidated at the date those statements were submitted. In this respect it differs from the historical cost method in that the most important statement under fair value is the balance sheet rather than the profit and loss account (Penman 2007, p. 8-9). Similarly, it favours realism rather than the conservative approach that was apparent in some of the previous methods (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.93). As most academics and professional observers are agreed, fair value has now become the most popular choice of all the available methods used within financial reporting statements (Stolowy and Breton 2000, Bens and Heltzer 2004, Staff team 2004 and Blake and Lunt 2000). However, one of its main disadvantages is its subjectivity. Those opposed to this method argue that â€Å"subjective valuations do not work when account objective values are what is needed† (Penman 2007, p.14). Although some believe that fair value has a use for investors (Schroeder et al 2005, p.310), there are others that argue the â€Å"lack of verifiability of the inputs necessary to implement such a system potentially adds noise and bias over and above the more traditional historical cost estimates† (Bens and Heltzer 2004, p.2). Even the fact that, in appropriate instances, the fair value still allows corporations to use the historical cost approach, as is the case with some asset valuations, rather than reducing the concerns over this method, it is felt that the mixed measurement can do more harm to values (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.90 and p.160). One of the major elements of the subjective argument is that fair values relies upon expert judgements and opinions, and that bias or error could lead to increased â€Å"volatility in financial statements† (Barth 2006, p.323) and also reduce the ability to be able to compare results across a specific industry or range of industries (Staff team 2004). As Antill and Lee (2005, p.67), the fact that fair value is reliant in most cases to expert opinion and natural bias means that the estimations included within the financial statements may differ from the actual values received for the assets, a position that will not be realised until the sale has taken place. Therefore, from the literature reviewed it is true to say that, irrespective of its increasing popularity, issues remain to be addressed in respect of the fair value method (Alfredson et al 2007, p.48). As Barker (2001, p.148) indicates, although the intention of this process is either to ensure there is a genuine relations hip between the asset and the profitability of the corporation or, by indicating an overpayment eliminate its value, the current concerns relating to judgement and verification of values brings the practical implementation of these objectives into question. 3.2 IFRS standards and measurements In its introductory framework document to the IFRS standards, the IASB (2001) identified the four main characteristics of quality to be exhibited within financial statements as being â€Å"understandability, relevance reliability and comparability.† It further identified that the elements of the statements to be concentrated upon were: a) An asset is a resource controlled by the entity because of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. b) A liability is a present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits. c) Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities. in relation to the balance sheet and, in terms of the profit and loss account â€Å" The elements of income and expenses are defined as follows:† a) Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants. b) Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of l iabilities that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants. In the early editions of the standards, references and definitions of the â€Å"fair value† method of measurement to be used were sparse. However, following consultations (IASB 2007 a and 2007 b), efforts were made to address this situation. This resulted in the creation of the following fair value definition: That fair value is â€Å"the amount for which an asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arms length transaction† (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006, p.6). The previous lack of guidance available was seen as a flaw in the standards (Alfedson et al 2007, p.7). This, together with the fact that the ISAB gave in to pressure from American corporations to give up on many of the changes that would have affected the asset of goodwill (Weil 2000 and Mard and Hitchner 2007), did not endear the system and standards to any experts, as continuing criticism from all sides has evidenced (Lee 2006). Both prior to and since the definition of fair value being introduced there has been strong criticism of the measurement systems and advice give for the need to resolve these issues (Tweedie and Whittington 1900 and Lindell 2005). Although regular consultations and improvements to the standards are ongoing, to date it is felt that the measurements still fail in their intention to increase transparency and comparability. This is particularly felt to be the case in terms of property, plant and equipment, and investment property, which will be discussed in th e following sections. 3.2.1 Measurements of property, plant and equipment The measurement and its definition relating to assets that belong within the group entitled as â€Å"Property, Plant and Equipment† are outlined within the summary of International Accounting Standard (IAS) 16. In this standard it defines the assets to be included in the financial statements in this section as being those which will produce a â€Å"future economic benefit† to the business. In terms of cost upon acquisition, the standard indicates that this will be calculated to include its purchase price and any other costs that are associated with transporting and installing the asset at the corporations premises. In relation to the measurement to be used in financial statements subsequent to the date of cost, the standard allows corporations to choose between the cost (historical approach) or the revaluation method (fair value) (IAS 16). The revaluation method requires an expert judgement of what the asset value would be at a given date. From this would be deducted any depreciation and impairment losses that had attached to the asset to the date of revaluation. It is also advised that this process should be carried out at regular intervals and certainly close to the date of the financial statements preparation. The fair value definition in this case is considered as being reliant upon the definition given in the previous section of this study (see page 19). 3.2.2 Measurements of investment property In many respects, for example, with the choice of measurements, the IAS 40 standard relating to investment property is similar to IAS 16. For example, in this case the choice is between: a) A fair value model, under which an investment property is measured, after initial measurement, at fair value with changes in fair value recognised in profit or loss; or b) A cost model. The cost model is specified in IAS 16 and requires an investment property to be measured after initial measurement at depreciated cost (less any accumulated impairment losses). An entity that chooses the cost model discloses the fair value of its investment property. The definition of investment property is considered to be â€Å"property (land or a building—or part of a building—or both) held (by the owner or by the lessee under a finance lease) to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both, rather than for: a. use in the production or supply of goods or services or for administrative purposes; or b. sale in the ordinary course of business.† (IASB 2008). It should be noted at this point that the fair value indicated within this IAS standard would incorporated the same revaluation process as was explained within the previous section regarding IAS. 3.3 Issues arising from IAS 16

Free Essays - The Role Model in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

The Role Model in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" gives a visual look at the time in which the author Samuel Clemens lived. He explains how he felt about his life through the eyes of a young boy named Huckleberry Finn. Huckleberry Finn has many adventures that teach him life lessons we can learn from today. Although there are differing opinions on whether Huck Finn is a good role model for today's young people, I will explain why I think he is. Huck is a good role model for several reasons. First, he believes that slavery is wrong. He believes in treating people equally regardless of color. When Huck sees the widow's runaway slave Jim on Jackson's Island, he has mixed emotions about what he should say and do. He feels badly that the widow is going to sell Jim and separate him from his family. Huck decides against better reasoning to help Jim escape down the Mississippi River to Cairo. Another example of good role modeling is Huck's faithfulness to those he loves and cares for. Huck lies to protect Jim on several occasions. Lying is not the best thing, but to Huckleberry, the truth is not always a black and white issue. He is faithful to his friends and chooses friendship instead. He knows that Jim's family needs him. In today's language, Huckleberry's reaction to Jim's situation would reflect what Spock of Star Trek says, "The needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few." An illustration of another positive side of Huck shows us that he has a good and true heart, and the best intentions even though they may not turn out right. For example, the widow tells Huck to pray for the dinner they are having. Huck's interpretation is, "God thank you for the meal and if you get the chance, please let me catch a big catfish." The widow tells Huck that he shouldn't pray for material things. Huck disagrees because his Sunday School teacher teaches him to pray to God for what you want, and it will be granted. The widow tells him that the teacher is talking about spiritual things. He still disagrees, and Free Essays - The Role Model in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays The Role Model in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" gives a visual look at the time in which the author Samuel Clemens lived. He explains how he felt about his life through the eyes of a young boy named Huckleberry Finn. Huckleberry Finn has many adventures that teach him life lessons we can learn from today. Although there are differing opinions on whether Huck Finn is a good role model for today's young people, I will explain why I think he is. Huck is a good role model for several reasons. First, he believes that slavery is wrong. He believes in treating people equally regardless of color. When Huck sees the widow's runaway slave Jim on Jackson's Island, he has mixed emotions about what he should say and do. He feels badly that the widow is going to sell Jim and separate him from his family. Huck decides against better reasoning to help Jim escape down the Mississippi River to Cairo. Another example of good role modeling is Huck's faithfulness to those he loves and cares for. Huck lies to protect Jim on several occasions. Lying is not the best thing, but to Huckleberry, the truth is not always a black and white issue. He is faithful to his friends and chooses friendship instead. He knows that Jim's family needs him. In today's language, Huckleberry's reaction to Jim's situation would reflect what Spock of Star Trek says, "The needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few." An illustration of another positive side of Huck shows us that he has a good and true heart, and the best intentions even though they may not turn out right. For example, the widow tells Huck to pray for the dinner they are having. Huck's interpretation is, "God thank you for the meal and if you get the chance, please let me catch a big catfish." The widow tells Huck that he shouldn't pray for material things. Huck disagrees because his Sunday School teacher teaches him to pray to God for what you want, and it will be granted. The widow tells him that the teacher is talking about spiritual things. He still disagrees, and

Pollution and Environment Essay - Man Must Dominate Nature and the Envi

Man Must Dominate Nature and the Environment      Ã‚   How shall we deal with the environment? is an ethical question much discussed, but rarely answered with any well-thought-out justifications. Rather, individuals attempting to answer it have often made claims stating that certain things are "obvious." In this paper, I intend to analyze one of these ethical principles which is considered to be inherently obvious. For every culture has regarded certain things as "obvious" and needing no further explanation -- and every culture differs vastly on what it considers to be an "obvious truth." Thus, it seems that these "truths" are not, in themselves, "obvious." Rather, they require further scrutiny to determine their validity. Hence, in this paper I analyze a common environmental claim: "Everything natural has inherent value, and we should respect its right to exist." This paper is not meant to be a complete examination of environmental ethics; that would be beyond its scope. This question, however, lies at the heart of environmenta l ethics, and is certainly worth exploring.    Must we go through life refusing to do harm to any other natural entity, "living in harmony" with it, or "respecting its rights?" Or, if it is not true that we must, is it true that we should? In "Environmental Ethics," Barbara MacKinnon explains that ecocentrists believe "that we ought ... to regard nature with admiration and respect, because of their view that nature and natural beings have intrinsic value." (MacKinnon 327) MacKinnon also states that "ethical questions ... become matters of determining what is in the best interests of these life forms or what furthers or contributes to, or is a satisfactory fit with, some ecosystem." (MacKinnon 326)... ...n as the dominant species on the planet; moreover, it provides another explanation of why the proper concern of humankind is humankind, rather than an ecosystem or "life as a whole." If we are to remain a strong, healthy species, capable of employing the power of becoming everything that we can become, we must continue to see humanity as our own proper study.    Works Cited: MacKinnon, Barbara. "Environmental Ethics" in Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues, Second Edition. Ed Barbara MacKinnon. Albany: Belmont, 1998. Morris, Desmond. The Naked Ape. New York: Dell, 1967. Nietzsche, Friederich. Beyond Good and Evil. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage, 1966. Nietzsche, Friederich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra in The Portable Nietzsche. Ed. and Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Viking, 1954. Voltaire. Candide. New York: Dover, 1991.   

Data Collection Essay

* The Rough was excluded during the calculation of the mean as the rough was a trial to indicate the general whereabouts of the end point, which is inaccurate of the exact end point. Table 2. Observations collected during the experiment. Table contains observations which were recorded during each trial of the experiment. Trials Observations Before trials * When water was added to the crystals of oxalic acid, it dissolved almost instantly with a light stirring of the beaker. Rough * When two drops phenolphthalein was added to the solution of sodium hydroxide, the solution turned pink. * After adding about 20.8dm3 of oxalic acid into the sodium hydroxide solution, while swirling the conical flask, the solution turned completely clear – the oxalic acid was filled up to 21dm3 to have a rounded rough end point to work with. 1 * When two drops of phenolphthalein was added to the sodium hydroxide solution, the solution turned pink. * After adding about 20dm3 of oxalic acid solution, while swirling the conical flask gently, each drop of oxalic acid solution began to turn the pink solution slightly clear. * After about 20.6dm3 oxalic acid solution was added, the pink solution turned completely clear. 2 * Two drops of phenolphthalein was added to sodium hydroxide solution, producing a pink coloured solution. * After about 20dm3 of oxalic acid solution was added, each drop began turning the pink solution slightly clear. * After adding around 20.4dm3 of oxalic acid solution, the pink solution turned completely clear. 3 * Two drops of phenolphthalein was added to the sodium hydroxide solution, turning the solution in the conical flask pink. * After adding about 20dm3 of oxalic acid solution, each drop began turning the pink solution slightly clear. * When about 20.3dm3 of the acid was added, the pink solution turned completely clear. Data Processing 1. Write an equation for the reaction. (COOH)2 + 2NaOH –> 2NaCO3 + 2H2O 2. What amount (in moles) of NaOH is present in 20.0 cm3 of 0.097 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution? c = n/v c = 0.097mol dm-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001 = 0.097mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (0.001/0.097 x 100%) = 0.097mols dm-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.03% v = 20.0cm3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.04 = (20.0/1000) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (0.04/20.0 x 100%) = 0.020dm3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.2% n = ? n = c x v n = 0.097 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.03% x 0.020 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.2% n = 0.00194 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (1.03 + 0.2)% ? n = 0.00194 mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23% 3. What amount of oxalic acid was present in the average volume required to react exactly with the sodium hydroxide solution? Using the molar ratio of 1:2 for acid : base respectively: 0.00194 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23% / 2 = 0.00097 mols ? amount of oxalic acid present = 0.00097 mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23% 4. What amount of oxalic acid was present in your 250 cm3 volumetric flask? Concentration of acid in 250mL is the same as the concentration of acid in 1L. Therefore the concentration of acid in 1 dm-3 of acid solution is the same as concentration of acid in 250mL: c = n/v c = 0.0119à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.03% / 0.25 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½(0.15/250 x 100%) c = 0.0476 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (2.03+0.06)% ? c = 0.05 mols dm-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.09% (concentration of acid) c = n/v 0.05à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.09% = n / 0.25 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.06% 0.05à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.09% x 0.25à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.06% = n ? n = 0.0125 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (2.09 + 0.06)% ? moles of oxalic acid in 250mL solution = 0.0125 mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.15% 5. What is the mass of one mole of oxalic acid? n = m/MM MM = m/n MM = 1.5g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.02 / 0.0125mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.15% MM = 1.5 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½(0.02/1.5 x100%) / 0.0125à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.15% MM = 120 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½(1.33+2.15)% MM = 120 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% m = n x MM m = 1 x 120à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% ? mass of one mole of oxalic acid = 120g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% 6. How many molecules of water of crystallisation are present in one mole? MM of (COOH)2 = 2(12.01 + 32 + 1) = 90.04 MM of H2O = (2.02 + 16) = 18.02 (COOH)2.xH2O = 120g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% ? 90.04 + 18.02x = 120g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% ? 18.02x = 120g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% – 90.04 ? 18.02x = 29.96à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% (/18.02) ? x = 1.6626à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% ? Molecules of water of crystallisation = 1.66à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.06 Conclusion and Evaluation Discussion 1. Estimate the degree of uncertainty in your readings using the balance, the volumetric flask, the pipette and the burette. How accurately can you quote your answer? Balance = à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.02g Volumetric flask = à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.15mL Pipette = à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.04cm3 Burette = à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.15cm3 The equipments used were relatively accurate as the uncertainties compared to the collected values are small. 2. Compare your answer with the correct answer and work out the percentage error. Percentage error = [(experimental value – actual value) / actual value] x 100% = [(1.6626 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% – 2) / 2] x 100% = 16.87% à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.74% 3. Suggest any other reasons for possible error. Other reasons for possible error include the uncertainty of equipments, human errors and mistakes, possibility of contaminated solutions, air bubbles and transference of solution between equipments. This experiment was conducted to find the ratio of water in hydrate oxalic acid crystals. This included calculations of the theoretical and experimental values for the ratio of water in the hydrate oxalic acid crystals and the percentage errors of values compared. The equation for the reaction between the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) and the oxalic acid solution ((COOH)2) was worked out, with the product being a salt (NaCO3) and water (H2O). As the oxalic acid solution is a dibasic acid solution, the reaction ratio with sodium hydroxide is 1:2. The amount of NaOH, in moles, was also calculated by multiplying the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution and the volume of sodium hydroxide solution used. The equation c = n/v was used to calculate this. The result was 0.00194 moles of NaOH in the sodium hydroxide solution with an uncertainty of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23%. The amount of oxalic acid presented in the average volume required to react exactly with the sodium hydroxide solution was also calculated; by dividing the moles of NaOH (0.00194à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23%) by 2, based on the 1:2 reaction ratio stated before. The result was 0.00097 moles with an uncertainty of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.23%. The amount of oxalic acid present in 250cm3 was also calculated. The concentration of acid in 250mL is the same as the concentration of acid in 1L, therefore, the concentration of acid in 1dm-3 of the oxalic acid solution is the same concentration as the acid in 250mL. With this understood, the equation c = n/v was used once again. The ‘concentration’ was first calculated by dividing the moles of NaOH by 0.25dm3. The result (0.05mols dm-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.09), was used in further calculations to determine the moles of oxalic acid by multiplying the previous calculated concentration (0.05mols dm-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.09) with 0.25dm3, resulting in the moles of oxalic acid in the 250mL solution as 0.0125mols à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.15%. This value was used in the calculation of the mass of one mole of oxalic acid. The equation n = m/MM was used in this calculation. The MM (molar mass) was first calculated, dividing the mass of oxalic acid crystals by the moles of oxalic acid (1.5 / 0.0125). The mass (m = n x MM) was calculated with the result of this (1 x 120à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48%), resulting in the mass of one mole of oxalic acid being 120à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48%. Finally, the molecules of water of crystallisation presented in one mole were calculated. This was done by using the mass of one mole of oxalic acid (120à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48%), subtracting the MM of (COOH)2 (90.04) from it and dividing the result by MM of H2O (18.02). The final result of the number of molecules of water in crystallisation equalled 1.66 with an uncertainty of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.48% or 0.06. With this final result, the percentage error was calculated, being 16.87%à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.74%. All the uncertainties within the values used were calculated into percentage through dividing the uncertainty by the value and multiplying it by 100%. The uncertainties were converted into percentages before doing calculations were done. There were several limitations found during this experiment which would have been the cause of an inaccurate final result – the variation between the theoretical value of 2 and the experimental value of 1.66à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.06. These limitations include the uncertainties of the equipment, human errors and mistakes, possibility of contaminated solutions, air bubbles found in solutions and the transference of solution between equipments. The significance of these errors and the improvements are listed in the table below. Limitations Significance Improvements Uncertainty of equipments Uncertainties were obtained during the experiment through the use of equipments. The inaccurate recording of data would have affected the results in the end. Eg. The readings on the electronic scale weren’t fully stable and consistent at one value, it varied – increasing and decreasing slightly. In the case of the electronic scale, it was suggested that the variation in weight value was due to the air-conditioning blowing down on it. The air-conditioner could be turned off to reduce the uncertainties and variations. Students could also prevent themselves from breathing heavily down onto the scale while measuring, this could have contributed to the variation as well. Human errors and mistakes Mistakes could affect the outcome and accuracy of results. Eg. While adding water into the volumetric flask to dissolve the oxalic acid crystals, a student accidentally added a little too much, over the 250cm3 that was intended. This would have over diluted the oxalic acid. This could have been avoided through patience while adding the water into the volumetric flask. This could also have been done slowly and carefully, probably using a pipette towards the end – at the 250cm3 mark. Reading the measurement of the pipette, burette and volumetric flask could have been inaccurate, causing results to be inaccurate and in turn affecting the calculations. Inaccuracy could have been due to improper way of reading the measurement. Students should have bent down slightly with the measurement at eye level. Student`s heads should not be tilted but level with the equipment as well. The measurement should also be read at the parallax, not above or below it. Possibility of contaminated solutions The experiment was conducted with the use of several different solutions. These solutions could have accidentally been mixed in with each other, causing the solution to be contaminated. The results obtained due to this could have been inaccurate, affecting the final results. Being careful with the solutions used would help avoid this. Using clean equipments for each different solution, making sure the solutions that are not meant to be placed together do not get mixed with each other. After the use of some of the equipments, they were to be washed and reused for another solution. The equipments were not dried before being used again; this could have diluted the solution and contaminated it. Drying the equipment each time after it is washed/cleaned would prevent access water and dilution of solutions. Air bubbles When transferring the dissolved oxalic acid into the burette, there were some tiny air bubbles. This would have because the measurement to be inaccurate as the air bubbles would have caused the reading of the solution to be greater than it actually is. Over time when the bubbles removed itself from the solution which would have caused a decrease in solution. The inaccurate measurement reading would have affected the final results of the experiment. The burette could have been left alone for awhile to allow the bubbles to float to the top. Whatever the amount the bubbles made up for, fill the burette up again with the use of a pipette. Transference of solution between equipments When transferring solutions between two or more differing equipments would have caused an increase of decrease in measurement. An inaccurate amount of solution would have affected the results or recorded data. When using a funnel during the transference of solution into the burette, it caused some increase in the desired amount. This is due to the tip of the funnel having some drops of solution left in it and when the funnel was removed, the movement could have caused those drops to drop into the burette, causing an increase in amount of solution. This could be prevented by either slowly removing the funnel or using the funnel up to a certain mark, remove it and fill up to the desired amount with the use of a small pipette – drop by drop. When using the 20mL pipette to transfer the sodium hydroxide into the conical flask, the tip of the nozzle had a drop that was tempted to drop out of the pipette. Avoid touching the sides and move the pipette over the flask slowly would reduce the chances of it dripping out and altering the volume of solution. A small amount of the solution was also stuck at the tip of the nozzle after being emptied. By touching the tip to the side of the flask would help that tiny bit of solution flow out. If possible have the nozzle flat on the side of the flask, this would allow it to flow out smoothly. To avoid or reduce these significant errors, these solutions and improvements should be taken into consideration during future repetition of this experiment. The experiment overall was invalid. Though the values in data collection may have been to a 0.10cm3 difference, the final calculation of the percentage error, 16.87%à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.74%, was much greater than the desired 1% causing the experiment to be invalid.

Every Picture Tells A Story Essay

This picture shows a number of African-Americans queuing. Their line extends from one edge of the photograph to the other suggesting a long queue. The men and women are wearing coats suggestive of the fashion during the early part of the 20th century. It must also have been a cold day in autumn or early spring in that they have to put their hands inside their pockets to keep warm. In the background is a giant billboard depicting an American family comprising of a mother, father, two children and a dog. They are inside a car driving through the countryside. On top of the billboard are the words â€Å"World’s Highest Standards of Living† and on the right in cursive, â€Å"There’s No Way Like the American Way†. These words suggest to the viewer the affluence of an American lifestyle, specifically the average American family. To belong to an American family is the best place to be in the world. The photographer is trying to point out the irony between the two elements in the picture. The whole image suggests a pictorial commentary about inequality in American society and the illusion that the billboard advertises. The â€Å"highest standards of living† that the billboard ascribes is only applicable to the white American. The traditional, smiling, healthy, nuclear family contrasts sharply with the pensive expressions on the faces of the people in the queue. The bright billboard and the dark colors in the people’s clothing further emphasize this point. The viewer does not know what they were falling in line for but from the fact that some of them are carrying bags and buckets, they are probably queuing for food rations. The situation regarding racial divisions is not as bad today as it was decades before or the time when the photograph was taken. There are still some poor people who fall in line in soup kitchens, for food stamps, and temporary shelters, but they would be comprised of black and white Americans. Billboard ads though, have not changed. They still promote the good way of life to entice customers; still pretending that American life only offers good things.